- What is Cognitive Bias?
- Types of Cognitive Bias
- Confirmation Bias
- Anchoring Effect
- Groupthink
- Halo Effect
- Authority Bias
- The Misinformation Bias
- Actor-Observer Bias
- False-Consensus Effect
- Self-Serving Bias
- The Availability Heuristic
- The Optimism Bias
- Conclusion
What is Cognitive Bias?
Cognitive Bias is a systematic error or pattern of deviation that occurs when people process and interpret information about the world. Individuals construct a subjective, constructed reality not based on objective inputs or facts, which in turn then impacts decision making and behaviour.
Cognitive biases can lead to inaccurate judgements, illogical interpretations or distorted perceptions and is sometimes referred to as irrationality. However, these biases are often a means of simplifying information by finding shortcuts or generalisations to help navigate the world. Cognitive bias results in faster decision-making.
Types of Cognitive Bias
- Decision-making biases
- Judgement based biases
- Memory based biases
- Motivation based biases
- Group based biases
Confirmation Bias
Confirmation bias is the tendency to search, select, analyse, interpret and recall information that supports an existing belief or value. Individuals will ignore facts that contradict their view, and favour interpreting ambitious evidence that supports their beliefs. It is strongly displayed for deeply rooted values or on issues that are emotionally charged. Confirmation bias cannot be eliminated entirely but Critical Thinking skills can help mitigate and manage it.
An example of Confirmation bias is found during elections. Individuals tend to actively seek information that casts their preferred candidate in a positive light, and the opposition in a negative light.
Anchoring Effect
The Anchoring Effect occurs when an individual’s decision making is influenced by a specific point of reference, known as an ‘Anchor’. Once an Anchor is established, all subsequent perceptions, estimates and suggestions are changed to accommodate for it. This is one of the harder biases to avoid or mitigate.
An example of the Anchoring Effect is when choosing to purchase a car. If two car models are placed side by side, one being more expensive, individuals are more likely to buy the cheaper car. However, this does not mean the chosen car is cheaper relative to all available options, only to the more expensive model. In this case the expensive car acts as an ‘anchor’ from which a price benchmark has been set.
Groupthink
Groupthink is a socially driven psychological bias where the need to maintain harmony within a group of people can result in dysfunctional or irrational decisions. The desire for cohesiveness can lead to group members agreeing at any cost, in order to reach a consensus with minimal conflict. As a result, decisions are made without critical evaluation or proper analysis. Since controversial issues or alternative solutions are side-lined to maintain harmony, there is a loss of independent thinking and creativity.
An example of Groupthink is found in organisations with a strong hierarchical culture, where employees will always defer to and agree with the most senior individual.
Halo Effect
The Halo Effect occurs when positive impressions formed about a brand, individual, product or organisation in one specific area then further positively influences someone’s feeling for them in other areas. This bias is built on an unfounded belief of things being either good or bad based on previous interactions and judgements.
An example of this would be judging an individual to be nicer or meaner based on their photograph despite never having communicated with them in any form. In HR and recruitment practices, the Halo Effect can bias an HR executive in preferring one candidate over another based on appearance alone instead of experience.
Authority Bias
Authority Bias is the tendency to give greater weight and assign greater accuracy to the opinions of a person in a position of authority, regardless of the context. It is classified as a social cognitive bias since the authority figure greatly influences an individual’s own perceptions, beliefs and opinions on a given matter. This is the result of both social and cultural conditioning, which teaches that a person in authority has earned or deserves the position they are in.
An example of this is the Military, where the individual orders stemming from an rising Chain of Command is followed and expected to be followed without question, regardless of the ethical or moral issues associated to the order.
The Misinformation Effect
The misinformation effect happens when false information is spread after an event, making a person’s memory of it less accurate. This tendency is especially important in legal settings because it allows later information to change the testimony of eyewitnesses.
Think of a scenario where a witness reports seeing a car collision, for instance. They later came upon a news story that misidentifies one of the automobiles’ hues. When asked to recollect the incident, the witness may erroneously remember the car’s colour from the article as opposed to the colour they first noticed.
This effect emphasises how important it is to think critically and process information accurately. It is especially pertinent for anyone pursuing an online master’s degree in psychology, as research and practice in psychology depend heavily on an awareness of cognitive biases.
Actor-Observer Bias
The propensity to blame other people’s behaviour on their personalities or characters while attributing our own acts to outside forces is known as the actor-observer bias. This prejudice may cause miscommunications and interpersonal problems.
For instance, if someone doesn’t pass an exam, they could attribute it to the challenging questions (external influences). But when they see a peer fail, they can conclude that the peer is either not intelligent or hasn’t studied hard enough (internal causes). This prejudice can influence our self- and other-perceptions, which frequently results in a lack of empathy.
False-Consensus Effect
The propensity to exaggerate the degree to which people share our opinions, attitudes, and actions is known as the false-consensus effect. Social polarisation and a false sense of security may result from this.
For instance, someone may imagine that most of their friends and relatives hold the same political views as them if they think that position is generally accepted. As a result, the person may become surprised or frustrated by opposing viewpoints because they feel alone in their beliefs.
Self-Serving Bias
The tendency to attribute our own abilities to favourable outcomes while blaming external forces for negative ones is known as the self-serving bias. Sports and other competitive environments are rife with this bias.
For instance, a basketball player may attribute a victory to their skill and a defeat on an unlucky call by the referee. This prejudice supports self-esteem but can impede personal development by keeping people from accepting accountability for their mistakes.
The Availability Heuristic
The availability heuristic is a cognitive short cut that depends on the first instances that spring to mind while assessing a particular subject or choice. This may result in distorted impressions that are based on vivid or recent information.
For instance, even though statistics indicate that flying is safer than driving, someone may overestimate the risks of flying after reading about plane crashes in the news. Decisions about one’s health and finances might be influenced by this bias in daily life.
The Optimism Bias
The idea that we are less likely than others to encounter bad things happens to us is known as the optimism bias. This may result in unsafe actions and bad choices.
For instance, a young adult may disregard routine checkups or healthy lifestyle choices because they think they are less likely than their peers to experience health problems. The effects of this prejudice on one’s health and wellbeing may be detrimental.
Conclusion
Anybody studying psychology has to understand cognitive biases like the availability heuristic, optimism bias, self-serving bias, actor-observer bias, false-consensus effect, and misinformation impact. These prejudices affect how we perceive the world and interact with others, as well as how we make decisions in many facets of our lives. Acknowledging these biases can benefit individuals seeking an online master’s in psychology by promoting improved communication and comprehension in a variety of settings.
Interested in learning more Psychology? Speak to a Higher Education Consultant.
